diff --git a/crates/algo/src/transform.rs b/crates/algo/src/transform.rs
index 5bf4fd798..bb31945d5 100644
--- a/crates/algo/src/transform.rs
+++ b/crates/algo/src/transform.rs
@@ -126,19 +126,19 @@ fn catmull_rom(t: f64) -> [f64; 4] {
 /// Warp `src` (its content inside `src_rect`) by `h` (source → destination document space).
 /// The result has the same format as `src`, with alpha added if `src` had none; pixels outside
 /// the warped quad are transparent.
-pub fn warp_surface(src: &Surface, src_rect: Rect, h: &Homography, interp: Interp) -> Surface {
+pub fn warp_surface(src: &Surface, src_rect: Rect, h: &Homography, interp: Interp) -> Result<Surface, photocraft_raster::AllocationError> {
     let mut fmt = src.format();
     let converted;
     let mut src = if fmt.alpha {
         src
     } else {
         fmt = PixelFormat::new(fmt.mode, fmt.sample, true);
-        converted = src.convert(fmt);
+        converted = src.try_convert(fmt)?;
         &converted
     };
     let mut out = Surface::new(fmt);
     if src_rect.is_empty() {
-        return out;
+        return Ok(out);
     }
     let mut h = *h;
     let mut src_rect = src_rect;
@@ -153,12 +153,12 @@ pub fn warp_surface(src: &Surface, src_rect: Rect, h: &Homography, interp: Inter
         h = h.mul(&Homography([1.0 / f, 0.0, 0.0, 0.0, 1.0 / f, 0.0, 0.0, 0.0, 1.0]));
         src_rect = crate::resample::scaled_rect(src_rect, f, f);
     }
-    let Some(inv) = h.inverse() else { return out };
+    let Some(inv) = h.inverse() else { return Ok(out) };
     // Destination bounds: the warped corners (plus a pixel for filter support).
     let corners = [(src_rect.x0, src_rect.y0), (src_rect.x1, src_rect.y0), (src_rect.x1, src_rect.y1), (src_rect.x0, src_rect.y1)]
         .map(|(x, y)| h.apply(x as f64, y as f64));
     if corners.iter().any(|c| !c.0.is_finite() || !c.1.is_finite()) {
-        return out;
+        return Ok(out);
     }
     let lim = 1 << 20;
     let bx0 = corners.iter().map(|c| c.0).fold(f64::MAX, f64::min).floor().max(-(lim as f64)) as i32 - 1;
@@ -168,7 +168,11 @@ pub fn warp_surface(src: &Surface, src_rect: Rect, h: &Homography, interp: Inter
     let dst = Rect::new(bx0, by0, bx1, by1);
     let n = fmt.channels();
     let a = n - 1;
-    let tiles: Vec<Rect> = dst.tiles().map(|tc| tc.rect().intersect(&dst)).filter(|r| !r.is_empty()).collect();
+    let tile_count = dst.tiles().count();
+    let tile_bytes = tile_count.checked_mul(std::mem::size_of::<Rect>()).ok_or(photocraft_raster::AllocationError::SizeOverflow)?;
+    let mut tiles = Vec::new();
+    tiles.try_reserve_exact(tile_count).map_err(|_| photocraft_raster::AllocationError::NotEnoughMemory { bytes: tile_bytes })?;
+    tiles.extend(dst.tiles().map(|tc| tc.rect().intersect(&dst)).filter(|r| !r.is_empty()));
     let src_ref: &Surface = src;
     // A sampled pixel's inverse w is 1 / (forward w at its source point). While the forward w keeps one sign over the source
     // (plus the margin the sampler reads), every sampled pixel lies at least `w_lo` from the inverse horizon, so clipping a tile
@@ -177,7 +181,7 @@ pub fn warp_surface(src: &Surface, src_rect: Rect, h: &Homography, interp: Inter
     let fwd_w = [(sx0, sy0), (sx1, sy0), (sx1, sy1), (sx0, sy1)].map(|(x, y)| h.0[6] * x + h.0[7] * y + h.0[8]);
     let side = [1.0, -1.0].into_iter().find(|&s| fwd_w.iter().all(|&c| s * c > 0.0));
     let w_lo = 1.0 / fwd_w.iter().fold(0.0f64, |m, c| m.max(c.abs()));
-    let work = |t: &Rect| -> Option<(Rect, Vec<f32>)> {
+    let work = |t: &Rect| -> Result<Option<(Rect, Vec<f32>)>, photocraft_raster::AllocationError> {
         // Source footprint of this tile (inverse-mapped corners of its sampled part), padded for the filter.
         let tc = [(t.x0, t.y0), (t.x1, t.y0), (t.x1, t.y1), (t.x0, t.y1)].map(|(x, y)| (x as f64, y as f64));
         let wc = tc.map(|(x, y)| inv.0[6] * x + inv.0[7] * y + inv.0[8]);
@@ -201,7 +205,7 @@ pub fn warp_surface(src: &Surface, src_rect: Rect, h: &Homography, interp: Inter
             None => tc.to_vec(),
         };
         if poly.is_empty() {
-            return None;
+            return Ok(None);
         }
         let fp: Vec<(f64, f64)> = poly.iter().map(|&(x, y)| inv.apply(x, y)).collect();
         let fx0 = fp.iter().map(|c| c.0).fold(f64::MAX, f64::min).floor() as i32 - 3;
@@ -212,10 +216,10 @@ pub fn warp_surface(src: &Surface, src_rect: Rect, h: &Homography, interp: Inter
         let straddles = side.is_none() && wc.iter().any(|w| *w <= 0.0) && wc.iter().any(|w| *w >= 0.0);
         let foot = if straddles { src_rect } else { Rect::new(fx0, fy0, fx1, fy1).intersect(&src_rect) };
         if foot.is_empty() || !src_ref.has_tiles_in(foot) {
-            return None;
+            return Ok(None);
         }
         // Premultiplied source window.
-        let mut px = src_ref.read_region(foot);
+        let mut px = src_ref.try_read_region(foot)?;
         for p in px.chunks_exact_mut(n) {
             let al = p[a];
             for v in &mut p[..a] {
@@ -231,7 +235,11 @@ pub fn warp_surface(src: &Surface, src_rect: Rect, h: &Homography, interp: Inter
             }
         };
         let w = t.width() as usize;
-        let mut outp = vec![0.0f32; w * t.height() as usize * n];
+        let len = w.checked_mul(t.height() as usize).and_then(|v| v.checked_mul(n)).ok_or(photocraft_raster::AllocationError::SizeOverflow)?;
+        let bytes = len.checked_mul(std::mem::size_of::<f32>()).ok_or(photocraft_raster::AllocationError::SizeOverflow)?;
+        let mut outp = Vec::new();
+        outp.try_reserve_exact(len).map_err(|_| photocraft_raster::AllocationError::NotEnoughMemory { bytes })?;
+        outp.resize(len, 0.0f32);
         let mut any = false;
         let mut acc = [0.0f64; 8];
         for y in t.y0..t.y1 {
@@ -285,20 +293,34 @@ pub fn warp_surface(src: &Surface, src_rect: Rect, h: &Homography, interp: Inter
                 outp[o + a] = al as f32;
             }
         }
-        any.then_some((*t, outp))
+        Ok(any.then_some((*t, outp)))
     };
+    let result_bytes = tiles.len().checked_mul(std::mem::size_of::<(Rect, Vec<f32>)>()).ok_or(photocraft_raster::AllocationError::SizeOverflow)?;
+    let mut done = Vec::new();
+    done.try_reserve_exact(tiles.len()).map_err(|_| photocraft_raster::AllocationError::NotEnoughMemory { bytes: result_bytes })?;
+    let done = std::sync::Mutex::new(done);
     #[cfg(not(target_arch = "wasm32"))]
-    let done: Vec<(Rect, Vec<f32>)> = {
+    {
         use rayon::prelude::*;
-        tiles.par_iter().filter_map(work).collect()
-    };
+        tiles.into_par_iter().try_for_each(|tile| -> Result<(), photocraft_raster::AllocationError> {
+            if let Some(result) = work(&tile)? {
+                done.lock().unwrap_or_else(std::sync::PoisonError::into_inner).push(result);
+            }
+            Ok(())
+        })?;
+    }
     #[cfg(target_arch = "wasm32")]
-    let done: Vec<(Rect, Vec<f32>)> = tiles.iter().filter_map(work).collect();
+    for tile in tiles {
+        if let Some(result) = work(&tile)? {
+            done.lock().unwrap_or_else(std::sync::PoisonError::into_inner).push(result);
+        }
+    }
+    let done = done.into_inner().unwrap_or_else(std::sync::PoisonError::into_inner);
     for (r, v) in done {
-        out.write_region(r, &v);
+        out.try_write_region(r, &v)?;
     }
     out.prune();
-    out
+    Ok(out)
 }
 
 #[cfg(test)]
@@ -333,7 +355,7 @@ mod tests {
         s.fill_rect(Rect::new(0, 0, 100, 100), &[1.0, 0.0, 0.0, 1.0]);
         let r = s.content_bounds();
         let h = Homography::rect_to_quad([0.0, 0.0, 100.0, 100.0], [[0.0, 0.0], [300.0, 0.0], [155.0, 155.0], [0.0, 300.0]]).unwrap();
-        let w = warp_surface(&s, r, &h, Interp::Nearest);
+        let w = warp_surface(&s, r, &h, Interp::Nearest).unwrap();
         for (x, y) in [(20, 20), (252, 14), (252, 42), (14, 252), (42, 252)] {
             let a = w.read_region(Rect::new(x, y, x + 1, y + 1))[3];
             assert!(a > 0.99, "({x},{y}) inside the quad is transparent: {a}");
@@ -350,7 +372,7 @@ mod tests {
         let r = s.content_bounds();
         for interp in [Interp::Nearest, Interp::Bilinear, Interp::Bicubic] {
             let h = Homography([1.0, 0.0, 7.0, 0.0, 1.0, -3.0, 0.0, 0.0, 1.0]);
-            let o = warp_surface(&s, r, &h, interp);
+            let o = warp_surface(&s, r, &h, interp).unwrap();
             assert_eq!(o.content_bounds(), Rect::new(11, 1, 27, 9), "{interp:?}");
             assert_eq!(o.pixel(15, 5), vec![1.0, 128.0 / 255.0, 0.0, 1.0], "{interp:?}");
         }
@@ -366,12 +388,13 @@ mod tests {
             r,
             &Homography::rect_to_quad([0.0, 0.0, 40.0, 20.0], [[0.0, 0.0], [80.0, 0.0], [80.0, 40.0], [0.0, 40.0]]).unwrap(),
             Interp::Bicubic,
-        );
+        )
+        .unwrap();
         let b = up.content_bounds();
         assert!(b.width() >= 80 && b.width() <= 82 && b.height() >= 40 && b.height() <= 42, "{b:?}");
         // 90° rotation about (20, 10): a 40×20 box becomes 20×40.
         let q = [[30.0, -10.0], [30.0, 30.0], [10.0, 30.0], [10.0, -10.0]];
-        let rot = warp_surface(&s, r, &Homography::rect_to_quad([0.0, 0.0, 40.0, 20.0], q).unwrap(), Interp::Bilinear);
+        let rot = warp_surface(&s, r, &Homography::rect_to_quad([0.0, 0.0, 40.0, 20.0], q).unwrap(), Interp::Bilinear).unwrap();
         let b = rot.content_bounds();
         assert!(b.width().abs_diff(20) <= 2 && b.height().abs_diff(40) <= 2, "{b:?}");
         let p = rot.pixel(20, 10);
@@ -389,7 +412,7 @@ mod tests {
             }
         }
         let h = Homography::rect_to_quad([0.0, 0.0, 64.0, 64.0], [[0.0, 0.0], [8.0, 0.0], [8.0, 8.0], [0.0, 8.0]]).unwrap();
-        let o = warp_surface(&s, s.content_bounds(), &h, Interp::Bicubic);
+        let o = warp_surface(&s, s.content_bounds(), &h, Interp::Bicubic).unwrap();
         let p = o.pixel(4, 4);
         assert!((p[0] - 0.5).abs() < 0.1, "{p:?}");
     }
@@ -399,7 +422,7 @@ mod tests {
         let mut s = Surface::new(PixelFormat::new(photocraft_color::ColorMode::Rgb, photocraft_color::SampleType::U8, false));
         s.fill_rect(Rect::new(0, 0, 10, 10), &[1.0, 0.0, 0.0]);
         let h = Homography([1.0, 0.0, 5.0, 0.0, 1.0, 0.0, 0.0, 0.0, 1.0]);
-        let o = warp_surface(&s, Rect::new(0, 0, 10, 10), &h, Interp::Nearest);
+        let o = warp_surface(&s, Rect::new(0, 0, 10, 10), &h, Interp::Nearest).unwrap();
         assert!(o.format().alpha);
         assert_eq!(o.pixel(2, 2)[3], 0.0);
         assert_eq!(o.pixel(7, 2), vec![1.0, 0.0, 0.0, 1.0]);
diff --git a/crates/algo/src/vanishing.rs b/crates/algo/src/vanishing.rs
index 46e762b7f..5661d66c9 100644
--- a/crates/algo/src/vanishing.rs
+++ b/crates/algo/src/vanishing.rs
@@ -228,22 +228,22 @@ fn quad_mask(h: &Homography, area: Rect) -> Vec<f32> {
 /// Pastes `src` (content in `src_rect`) onto plane `i` with its top-left at plane coordinates
 /// `at` (0..1) and its width `width` (fraction of the plane's width), aspect preserved in the
 /// plane's metric. Returns the warped image clipped to the plane (transparent elsewhere).
-pub fn paste(scene: &Scene, i: usize, src: &Surface, src_rect: Rect, at: [f64; 2], width: f64) -> Option<Surface> {
-    let (h, lu, lv) = scene.frame(i)?;
+pub fn paste(scene: &Scene, i: usize, src: &Surface, src_rect: Rect, at: [f64; 2], width: f64) -> Result<Option<Surface>, photocraft_raster::AllocationError> {
+    let Some((h, lu, lv)) = scene.frame(i) else { return Ok(None) };
     let (sw, sh) = (src_rect.width() as f64, src_rect.height() as f64);
     if sw <= 0.0 || sh <= 0.0 {
-        return None;
+        return Ok(None);
     }
     // Source px → plane (u, v): u spans `width`, v keeps the metric aspect.
     let su = width / sw;
     let sv = width * lu / lv / sw;
     let to_plane = Homography([su, 0.0, at[0] - src_rect.x0 as f64 * su, 0.0, sv, at[1] - src_rect.y0 as f64 * sv, 0.0, 0.0, 1.0]);
     let full = h.mul(&to_plane);
-    let mut out = warp_surface(src, src_rect, &full, Interp::Bicubic);
+    let mut out = warp_surface(src, src_rect, &full, Interp::Bicubic)?;
     // Clip to the plane.
     let b = out.content_bounds();
     if b.is_empty() {
-        return Some(out);
+        return Ok(Some(out));
     }
     let mask = quad_mask(&h, b);
     let fmt = out.format();
@@ -254,7 +254,7 @@ pub fn paste(scene: &Scene, i: usize, src: &Surface, src_rect: Rect, at: [f64; 2
     }
     out.write_region(b, &data);
     out.prune();
-    Some(out)
+    Ok(Some(out))
 }
 
 /// Perspective clone stamp: one stroke of dabs at image points `points` on the destination
@@ -384,7 +384,7 @@ mod tests {
         let sc = Scene::new(floor_quad(500.0, c), c, None, 800.0);
         let mut img = Surface::new(PixelFormat::RGBA8);
         img.fill_rect(Rect::new(0, 0, 100, 50), &[1.0, 0.0, 0.0, 1.0]);
-        let out = paste(&sc, 0, &img, Rect::new(0, 0, 100, 50), [0.25, 0.25], 0.5).unwrap();
+        let out = paste(&sc, 0, &img, Rect::new(0, 0, 100, 50), [0.25, 0.25], 0.5).unwrap().unwrap();
         // The pasted rectangle lands inside the plane, around plane (0.5, 0.5).
         let h = sc.planes[0].homography().unwrap();
         let (x, y) = h.apply(0.5, 0.5);
diff --git a/crates/algo/src/warp.rs b/crates/algo/src/warp.rs
index e2ca4e35d..2a8c7a586 100644
--- a/crates/algo/src/warp.rs
+++ b/crates/algo/src/warp.rs
@@ -30,31 +30,41 @@ const MAX_CELLS: usize = 512;
 /// through `warp` (source space) and then the affine `t` (source → document) in one resampling
 /// pass, an exact shift for whole-pixel translations (so conversions and re-renders are
 /// lossless), bicubic otherwise. Shared by the engine's re-render and PSD export's filter cache.
-pub fn place_source(src: &Surface, src_rect: Rect, t: &photocraft_geom::Affine, warp: Option<&photocraft_geom::warp::Warp>) -> Surface {
+pub fn place_source(
+    src: &Surface,
+    src_rect: Rect,
+    t: &photocraft_geom::Affine,
+    warp: Option<&photocraft_geom::warp::Warp>,
+) -> Result<Surface, photocraft_raster::AllocationError> {
     let [a, b, c, d, e, f] = t.m;
     if let Some(w) = warp.filter(|w| !w.is_identity()) {
         let map = |x: f64, y: f64| {
             let (u, v) = w.map(x, y);
             (a * u + c * v + e, b * u + d * v + f)
         };
-        return warp_mesh_surface(src, src_rect, &map, Interp::Bicubic);
+        return Ok(warp_mesh_surface(src, src_rect, &map, Interp::Bicubic));
     }
     let near = |x: f64, y: f64| (x - y).abs() < 1e-9;
     if near(a, 1.0) && near(b, 0.0) && near(c, 0.0) && near(d, 1.0) && near(e, e.round()) && near(f, f.round()) {
-        return crate::resample::translate_surface(src, e.round() as i32, f.round() as i32);
+        return Ok(crate::resample::translate_surface(src, e.round() as i32, f.round() as i32));
     }
     crate::transform::warp_surface(src, src_rect, &crate::transform::Homography([a, c, e, b, d, f, 0.0, 0.0, 1.0]), Interp::Bicubic)
 }
 
 /// [`place_source`] through a projective map `h` (source → document; Distort, Perspective): the
 /// warp first (in source space), then `h`.
-pub fn place_source_projective(src: &Surface, src_rect: Rect, h: &crate::transform::Homography, warp: Option<&photocraft_geom::warp::Warp>) -> Surface {
+pub fn place_source_projective(
+    src: &Surface,
+    src_rect: Rect,
+    h: &crate::transform::Homography,
+    warp: Option<&photocraft_geom::warp::Warp>,
+) -> Result<Surface, photocraft_raster::AllocationError> {
     if let Some(w) = warp.filter(|w| !w.is_identity()) {
         let map = |x: f64, y: f64| {
             let (u, v) = w.map(x, y);
             h.apply(u, v)
         };
-        return warp_mesh_surface(src, src_rect, &map, Interp::Bicubic);
+        return Ok(warp_mesh_surface(src, src_rect, &map, Interp::Bicubic));
     }
     crate::transform::warp_surface(src, src_rect, h, Interp::Bicubic)
 }
diff --git a/crates/engine/src/align_cmds.rs b/crates/engine/src/align_cmds.rs
index 76a363cdc..99e47157a 100644
--- a/crates/engine/src/align_cmds.rs
+++ b/crates/engine/src/align_cmds.rs
@@ -84,11 +84,14 @@ fn auto_align(s: &mut Session, p: &Value) -> Result<Value> {
             let l = doc.layer(ids[i]).ok_or(EngineError::NoLayer(ids[i]))?;
             let surf = l.surface().ok_or(EngineError::NoLayer(ids[i]))?;
             let b = surf.content_bounds();
-            let px = if b.is_empty() { surf.clone() } else { warp_placed(surf, b, (0.0, 0.0), pl, (0.0, 0.0), interp) };
-            let mask = l.mask.as_ref().map(|m| {
-                let mb = m.surface.content_bounds();
-                if mb.is_empty() { m.surface.clone() } else { warp_placed(&m.surface, mb, (0.0, 0.0), pl, (0.0, 0.0), Interp::Bilinear) }
-            });
+            let px = if b.is_empty() { surf.clone() } else { warp_placed(surf, b, (0.0, 0.0), pl, (0.0, 0.0), interp)? };
+            let mask = match l.mask.as_ref() {
+                Some(m) => {
+                    let mb = m.surface.content_bounds();
+                    Some(if mb.is_empty() { m.surface.clone() } else { warp_placed(&m.surface, mb, (0.0, 0.0), pl, (0.0, 0.0), Interp::Bilinear)? })
+                }
+                None => None,
+            };
             Ok((ids[i], px, mask))
         })
         .collect::<Result<_>>()?;
diff --git a/crates/engine/src/allocation.rs b/crates/engine/src/allocation.rs
new file mode 100644
index 000000000..322e3ebd2
--- /dev/null
+++ b/crates/engine/src/allocation.rs
@@ -0,0 +1,70 @@
+//! Fallible buffers used by memory-intensive document operations.
+
+use crate::{EngineError, Result};
+
+#[cfg(test)]
+thread_local! {
+    static FAIL_NEXT: std::cell::Cell<bool> = const { std::cell::Cell::new(false) };
+}
+
+/// Reserve and initialize a buffer without invoking the allocator's abort-on-OOM path.
+pub(crate) fn filled<T: Clone>(len: usize, value: T, purpose: &str) -> Result<Vec<T>> {
+    let mut out = capacity(len, purpose)?;
+    out.resize(len, value);
+    Ok(out)
+}
+
+/// Reserve a vector for a known number of operation results.
+pub(crate) fn capacity<T>(len: usize, purpose: &str) -> Result<Vec<T>> {
+    let bytes = len.checked_mul(std::mem::size_of::<T>()).ok_or_else(|| error(purpose, "requested size overflowed"))?;
+    #[cfg(test)]
+    if FAIL_NEXT.with(|flag| flag.replace(false)) {
+        return Err(error(purpose, "not enough memory"));
+    }
+    let mut out = Vec::new();
+    out.try_reserve_exact(len).map_err(|_| error(purpose, &format!("not enough memory for {bytes} bytes")))?;
+    Ok(out)
+}
+
+/// Check an operation boundary where downstream encoders/decoders allocate internally.
+/// The test-only failpoint lets command tests prove their transaction boundary.
+pub(crate) fn checkpoint(purpose: &str) -> Result<()> {
+    #[cfg(test)]
+    if FAIL_NEXT.with(|flag| flag.replace(false)) {
+        return Err(error(purpose, "not enough memory"));
+    }
+    let _ = purpose;
+    Ok(())
+}
+
+/// Copy a region into an explicitly reserved buffer.
+pub(crate) fn read_region(surface: &photocraft_raster::Surface, area: photocraft_geom::Rect, purpose: &str) -> Result<Vec<f32>> {
+    let len = (area.width() as usize)
+        .checked_mul(area.height() as usize)
+        .and_then(|n| n.checked_mul(surface.channels()))
+        .ok_or_else(|| error(purpose, "requested size overflowed"))?;
+    let mut out = filled(len, 0.0, purpose)?;
+    surface.read_region_into(area, &mut out);
+    Ok(out)
+}
+
+fn error(purpose: &str, detail: &str) -> EngineError {
+    EngineError::Other(format!("not enough memory for {purpose} ({detail}); the document was not changed"))
+}
+
+#[cfg(test)]
+pub(crate) fn fail_next_for_test() {
+    FAIL_NEXT.with(|flag| flag.set(true));
+}
+
+#[cfg(test)]
+mod tests {
+    use super::*;
+
+    #[test]
+    fn allocation_failure_is_reported_without_panicking() {
+        fail_next_for_test();
+        let result = filled::<u8>(16, 0, "test image");
+        assert!(result.as_ref().is_err_and(|e| e.to_string().contains("not enough memory for test image")));
+    }
+}
diff --git a/crates/engine/src/distort_cmds.rs b/crates/engine/src/distort_cmds.rs
index 77cfdd88a..5ecb38eec 100644
--- a/crates/engine/src/distort_cmds.rs
+++ b/crates/engine/src/distort_cmds.rs
@@ -309,7 +309,7 @@ fn liquify(s: &mut Session, p: &Value) -> Result<Value> {
 fn deform_selected(surf: &Surface, sel: Option<&Surface>, f: &dyn Fn(&Surface) -> Result<Surface>) -> Result<Surface> {
     match sel {
         Some(sel) => {
-            let (lifted, mut rest) = crate::transform_cmds::split_selected(surf, sel);
+            let (lifted, mut rest) = crate::transform_cmds::split_selected(surf, sel)?;
             let moved = f(&lifted)?;
             crate::transform_cmds::composite_over(&mut rest, &moved);
             rest.prune();
diff --git a/crates/engine/src/edit_cmds.rs b/crates/engine/src/edit_cmds.rs
index 49031f711..1d2ee0363 100644
--- a/crates/engine/src/edit_cmds.rs
+++ b/crates/engine/src/edit_cmds.rs
@@ -65,7 +65,7 @@ fn active_id(s: &Session) -> Result<LayerId> {
 }
 
 /// The pixels of `src` inside the selection (or all of them), as a straight-alpha surface.
-fn lift(src: &Surface, sel: Option<&Surface>, canvas: Rect) -> Clip {
+fn lift(src: &Surface, sel: Option<&Surface>, canvas: Rect) -> Result<Clip> {
     let fmt = src.format();
     let with_alpha = PixelFormat::new(fmt.mode, fmt.sample, true);
     let area = match sel {
@@ -74,34 +74,45 @@ fn lift(src: &Surface, sel: Option<&Surface>, canvas: Rect) -> Clip {
     };
     let mut out = Surface::new(with_alpha);
     if area.is_empty() {
-        return Clip { surface: out, bounds: Rect::EMPTY };
+        return Ok(Clip { surface: out, bounds: Rect::EMPTY });
     }
     // Only the selected area is read: converting the whole layer (a 24 MP Background gaining
     // alpha) cost about a second per Layer via Copy (#668).
     let n = with_alpha.channels();
     let mut px = if fmt.alpha {
-        src.read_region(area)
+        crate::allocation::read_region(src, area, "copying pixels")?
     } else {
-        let opaque = src.read_region(area);
+        let opaque = crate::allocation::read_region(src, area, "copying pixels")?;
         let k = fmt.channels();
-        let mut v = Vec::with_capacity(opaque.len() / k.max(1) * n);
+        let len = opaque
+            .len()
+            .checked_div(k.max(1))
+            .and_then(|pixels| pixels.checked_mul(n))
+            .ok_or_else(|| EngineError::Other("not enough memory for copying pixels (requested size overflowed); the document was not changed".into()))?;
+        let mut v = crate::allocation::filled(len, 0.0, "copying pixels")?;
+        let mut at = 0;
         for p in opaque.chunks_exact(k.max(1)) {
-            v.extend_from_slice(p);
-            v.push(1.0);
+            let Some(dst) = v.get_mut(at..at + k.max(1)) else { break };
+            dst.copy_from_slice(p);
+            at += k.max(1);
+            if let Some(alpha) = v.get_mut(at) {
+                *alpha = 1.0;
+            }
+            at += 1;
         }
         v
     };
     if let Some(m) = sel {
-        let mask = m.read_region(area);
+        let mask = crate::allocation::read_region(m, area, "applying the selection to copied pixels")?;
         let mk = m.format().channels().max(1);
         for (p, a) in px.chunks_exact_mut(n).zip(mask.chunks_exact(mk)) {
             p[n - 1] *= a[0];
         }
     }
-    out.write_region(area, &px);
+    out.try_write_region(area, &px).map_err(|e| EngineError::Other(format!("not enough memory while copying pixels ({e}); the document was not changed")))?;
     out.prune();
     let bounds = out.content_bounds();
-    Clip { surface: out, bounds }
+    Ok(Clip { surface: out, bounds })
 }
 
 /// Merged composite of the visible document as a surface in the document's format.
@@ -114,11 +125,11 @@ fn copy(s: &mut Session, merged: bool) -> Result<Value> {
     let d = s.active().ok_or(EngineError::NoDocument)?;
     let canvas = d.doc.bounds();
     let clip = if merged {
-        lift(&merged_surface(&d.doc), d.doc.selection.as_ref(), canvas)
+        lift(&merged_surface(&d.doc), d.doc.selection.as_ref(), canvas)?
     } else {
         let id = d.active_layer.ok_or(EngineError::Other("no active layer".into()))?;
         let surf = d.doc.layer(id).and_then(Layer::surface).ok_or(EngineError::Other("the active layer has no pixels".into()))?;
-        lift(surf, d.doc.selection.as_ref(), canvas)
+        lift(surf, d.doc.selection.as_ref(), canvas)?
     };
     if clip.bounds.is_empty() {
         return Err(EngineError::Other("Could not copy: the selected area is empty".into()));
@@ -141,9 +152,9 @@ pub(crate) fn clear_area(doc: &mut Document, id: LayerId, area: Rect, sel: Optio
     let bg = crate::extra_cmds::is_background(doc.layer(id).ok_or(EngineError::NoLayer(id))?);
     let surf = crate::commands::paint_surface(doc, id, &Value::Null)?;
     if bg {
-        crate::pixels::fill_surface(surf, area, background, sel, true);
+        crate::pixels::try_fill_surface(surf, area, background, sel, true)?;
     } else {
-        crate::pixels::clear_surface(surf, area, sel);
+        crate::pixels::try_clear_surface(surf, area, sel)?;
     }
     surf.prune();
     Ok(())
@@ -152,6 +163,7 @@ pub(crate) fn clear_area(doc: &mut Document, id: LayerId, area: Rect, sel: Optio
 /// Paste as a new layer (or into the targeted mask or channel: [`paste_to_target`]). `in_place` keeps the original position; otherwise the pixels are centred
 /// on `center` (the view centre from the UI) or the canvas, unless they already overlap the canvas.
 fn paste(s: &mut Session, p: &Value, in_place: bool) -> Result<Value> {
+    crate::allocation::checkpoint("pasting pixels")?;
     let clip = s.clipboard.clone().ok_or(EngineError::Other("the clipboard is empty".into()))?;
     let Some(d) = s.active() else {
         // Nothing open to paste into: the clipboard becomes a document of its own (#368).
@@ -199,6 +211,7 @@ fn shifted(surface: &Surface, dx: i32, dy: i32) -> Surface {
 /// over what was there. Their transparency, and `limit` (Paste Into / Outside), let it show
 /// through. One history step.
 pub(crate) fn paste_to_target(s: &mut Session, p: &Value, in_place: bool, limit: Option<&Surface>, label: &str) -> Result<Value> {
+    crate::allocation::checkpoint("pasting pixels")?;
     let clip = s.clipboard.clone().ok_or(EngineError::Other("the clipboard is empty".into()))?;
     let d = s.active().ok_or(EngineError::NoDocument)?;
     let canvas = d.doc.bounds();
@@ -208,7 +221,7 @@ pub(crate) fn paste_to_target(s: &mut Session, p: &Value, in_place: bool, limit:
     let area = src.content_bounds().intersect(&canvas);
     s.edit(label, |doc, _| {
         let (surf, _) = crate::channel_cmds::target_surface(doc, layer, p)?;
-        crate::fill_cmds::composite_over(surf, &src, area, limit);
+        crate::fill_cmds::composite_over(surf, &src, area, limit)?;
         surf.prune();
         doc.selection = None;
         Ok(())
@@ -254,7 +267,7 @@ fn layer_via(s: &mut Session, cut: bool) -> Result<Value> {
         return Ok(json!({"layer": nid.0}));
     }
     let surf = d.doc.layer(id).and_then(Layer::surface).ok_or(EngineError::Other("the active layer has no pixels".into()))?;
-    let clip = lift(surf, d.doc.selection.as_ref(), d.doc.bounds());
+    let clip = lift(surf, d.doc.selection.as_ref(), d.doc.bounds())?;
     if clip.bounds.is_empty() {
         return Err(EngineError::Other("Could not complete the command: the selected area is empty".into()));
     }
@@ -623,6 +636,104 @@ mod tests {
         s
     }
 
+    #[test]
+    fn injected_clear_buffer_failure_leaves_the_document_unchanged() {
+        let mut s = session();
+        let st = s.active().unwrap();
+        let id = st.active_layer.unwrap();
+        let before = st.doc.layer(id).unwrap().surface().unwrap().clone();
+        let revision = st.revision;
+
+        crate::allocation::fail_next_for_test();
+        let result = s.execute("edit.clear", json!({}));
+
+        assert!(result.as_ref().is_err_and(|e| e.to_string().contains("not enough memory for erasing pixels")));
+        let st = s.active().unwrap();
+        assert_eq!(st.doc.layer(id).unwrap().surface(), Some(&before));
+        assert_eq!(st.revision, revision);
+    }
+
+    #[test]
+    fn injected_copy_buffer_failure_does_not_change_document_or_clipboard() {
+        let mut s = session();
+        let st = s.active().unwrap();
+        let id = st.active_layer.unwrap();
+        let before = st.doc.layer(id).unwrap().surface().unwrap().clone();
+        let revision = st.revision;
+
+        crate::allocation::fail_next_for_test();
+        let result = s.execute("edit.copy", json!({}));
+
+        assert!(result.as_ref().is_err_and(|e| e.to_string().contains("not enough memory for copying pixels")));
+        let st = s.active().unwrap();
+        assert_eq!(st.doc.layer(id).unwrap().surface(), Some(&before));
+        assert_eq!(st.revision, revision);
+        assert!(s.clipboard.is_none());
+    }
+
+    #[test]
+    fn injected_fill_result_reservation_failure_keeps_pixels_and_history() {
+        let mut s = session();
+        let st = s.active().unwrap();
+        let id = st.active_layer.unwrap();
+        let before = st.doc.layer(id).unwrap().surface().unwrap().clone();
+        let revision = st.revision;
+        let history_len = st.history.past_len();
+
+        crate::allocation::fail_next_for_test();
+        let result = s.execute("edit.fill", json!({"color": "#00ff00"}));
+
+        assert!(result.as_ref().is_err_and(|e| e.to_string().contains("not enough memory for blending pixels")));
+        let st = s.active().unwrap();
+        assert_eq!(st.doc.layer(id).unwrap().surface(), Some(&before));
+        assert_eq!(st.revision, revision);
+        assert_eq!(st.history.past_len(), history_len);
+    }
+
+    #[test]
+    fn injected_paste_failure_does_not_change_document_or_clipboard() {
+        let mut s = session();
+        s.execute("select.rect", json!({"x": 10, "y": 10, "width": 8, "height": 8})).unwrap();
+        s.execute("edit.copy", json!({})).unwrap();
+        let before_clip = s.clipboard.clone();
+        let st = s.active().unwrap();
+        let before_doc = (*st.doc).clone();
+        let revision = st.revision;
+        let history_len = st.history.past_len();
+
+        crate::allocation::fail_next_for_test();
+        let result = s.execute("edit.paste", json!({}));
+
+        assert!(result.as_ref().is_err_and(|e| e.to_string().contains("not enough memory for pasting pixels")));
+        let st = s.active().unwrap();
+        assert_eq!(*st.doc, before_doc);
+        assert_eq!(st.revision, revision);
+        assert_eq!(st.history.past_len(), history_len);
+        let after_clip = s.clipboard.as_ref().expect("clipboard remains available");
+        let before_clip = before_clip.as_ref().expect("clipboard was populated");
+        assert_eq!(after_clip.bounds, before_clip.bounds);
+        assert_eq!(after_clip.surface, before_clip.surface);
+    }
+
+    #[test]
+    fn injected_transform_failure_keeps_pixels_and_history() {
+        let mut s = session();
+        let st = s.active().unwrap();
+        let id = st.active_layer.unwrap();
+        let before = st.doc.layer(id).unwrap().surface().unwrap().clone();
+        let revision = st.revision;
+        let history_len = st.history.past_len();
+
+        crate::allocation::fail_next_for_test();
+        let result = s.execute("edit.transform", json!({"matrix": [1, 0, 0, 1, 20, 30]}));
+
+        assert!(result.as_ref().is_err_and(|e| e.to_string().contains("not enough memory for transforming pixels")));
+        let st = s.active().unwrap();
+        assert_eq!(st.doc.layer(id).unwrap().surface(), Some(&before));
+        assert_eq!(st.revision, revision);
+        assert_eq!(st.history.past_len(), history_len);
+    }
+
     fn active_bounds(s: &Session) -> Rect {
         let st = s.active().unwrap();
         st.doc.layer(st.active_layer.unwrap()).unwrap().surface().unwrap().content_bounds()
diff --git a/crates/engine/src/edit_menu_cmds.rs b/crates/engine/src/edit_menu_cmds.rs
index 46f924511..edae7d64c 100644
--- a/crates/engine/src/edit_menu_cmds.rs
+++ b/crates/engine/src/edit_menu_cmds.rs
@@ -572,7 +572,7 @@ fn content_aware_scale(s: &mut Session, p: &Value) -> Result<Value> {
         move |s, out| {
             s.edit(label, |doc, _| {
                 let surf = writable_surface(doc, id)?;
-                crate::pixels::clear_surface(surf, region, None);
+                crate::pixels::try_clear_surface(surf, region, None)?;
                 surf.write_region(dst, &out);
                 surf.prune();
                 Ok(())
diff --git a/crates/engine/src/extra_cmds.rs b/crates/engine/src/extra_cmds.rs
index 8a2e925c4..c3453c314 100644
--- a/crates/engine/src/extra_cmds.rs
+++ b/crates/engine/src/extra_cmds.rs
@@ -218,7 +218,7 @@ fn stroke(s: &mut Session, p: &Value) -> Result<Value> {
         let surf = crate::commands::paint_surface(doc, id, &Value::Null)?;
         let area = band.content_bounds().intersect(&canvas);
         if !area.is_empty() {
-            crate::fill_cmds::blend_color_mask(surf, area, color, &band, mode, opacity, preserve || lock);
+            crate::fill_cmds::blend_color_mask(surf, area, color, &band, mode, opacity, preserve || lock)?;
             surf.prune();
         }
         Ok(())
diff --git a/crates/engine/src/file_cmds.rs b/crates/engine/src/file_cmds.rs
index 2d30b35d6..103a1f6f3 100644
--- a/crates/engine/src/file_cmds.rs
+++ b/crates/engine/src/file_cmds.rs
@@ -205,6 +205,7 @@ pub(crate) fn sanitize(name: &str) -> String {
 }
 
 pub(crate) fn import(name: &str, bytes: &[u8]) -> Result<Document> {
+    crate::allocation::checkpoint("importing document")?;
     let r = photocraft_io::import(name, bytes).map_err(|e| EngineError::Other(format!("{name}: {e}")))?;
     // Auxiliary imports return only a document and cannot surface the preview's fidelity warning.
     // Open has its own warning-preserving path; never silently place or process a thumbnail.
@@ -245,6 +246,7 @@ impl From<Option<f64>> for SaveOpts {
 
 /// Encodes `doc` for `path`'s extension.
 pub(crate) fn encode(doc: &Document, path: &str, save: impl Into<SaveOpts>) -> Result<(Vec<u8>, Vec<String>)> {
+    crate::allocation::checkpoint("saving document")?;
     let save = save.into();
     let mut opts = photocraft_io::ExportOptions { tiff_layers: save.tiff_layers, ..Default::default() };
     if let Some(q) = save.quality {
@@ -359,6 +361,7 @@ fn save_a_copy(s: &mut Session, p: &Value) -> Result<Value> {
 
 /// Open a file's bytes, decoding them as the format `as_ext` (Open As) when given.
 pub fn open_bytes_as(s: &mut Session, name: &str, bytes: &[u8], as_ext: Option<&str>, path: Option<String>) -> Result<Value> {
+    crate::allocation::checkpoint("importing document")?;
     let decode_name = match as_ext {
         Some(ext) => format!("{}.{}", stem(name), ext.trim_start_matches('.')),
         None => name.to_string(),
diff --git a/crates/engine/src/file_cmds/tests.rs b/crates/engine/src/file_cmds/tests.rs
index 65cfea290..3ea6a319d 100644
--- a/crates/engine/src/file_cmds/tests.rs
+++ b/crates/engine/src/file_cmds/tests.rs
@@ -91,6 +91,28 @@ fn revert_reloads_as_one_undoable_step() {
     assert!(s.execute("file.revert", json!({})).is_err());
 }
 
+#[test]
+fn injected_import_failure_does_not_open_a_document() {
+    let mut s = session(8, 8, 8);
+    let before = s.documents().len();
+    crate::allocation::fail_next_for_test();
+    let result = open_bytes_as(&mut s, "image.png", b"not decoded", None, None);
+    assert!(result.as_ref().is_err_and(|e| e.to_string().contains("not enough memory for importing document")));
+    assert_eq!(s.documents().len(), before);
+}
+
+#[test]
+fn injected_save_failure_does_not_modify_the_destination() {
+    let dir = tmp("allocation-save");
+    let path = join(&dir, "existing.psd");
+    std::fs::write(&path, b"previous file").unwrap();
+    let s = session(8, 8, 8);
+    crate::allocation::fail_next_for_test();
+    let result = save_doc(doc(&s), &path, None);
+    assert!(result.as_ref().is_err_and(|e| e.to_string().contains("not enough memory for saving document")));
+    assert_eq!(std::fs::read(path).unwrap(), b"previous file");
+}
+
 #[test]
 fn save_a_copy_keeps_path_and_dirty_state() {
     let dir = tmp("copy");
diff --git a/crates/engine/src/fill_cmds.rs b/crates/engine/src/fill_cmds.rs
index 9453652e7..4d25474f3 100644
--- a/crates/engine/src/fill_cmds.rs
+++ b/crates/engine/src/fill_cmds.rs
@@ -127,7 +127,7 @@ pub fn fill(s: &mut Session, p: &Value) -> Result<Value> {
             let mut source_doc = (*source_doc).clone();
             let (src, _) = crate::channel_cmds::target_surface(&mut source_doc, id, p)
                 .map_err(|_| EngineError::Other("the target did not exist (as pixels, a mask or a channel) in that history state".into()))?;
-            Source::Pixels(area, read_rgba(src, area))
+            Source::Pixels(area, read_rgba(src, area, "reading Fill's history source")?)
         }
         "contentAware" => {
             let sel = sel.as_ref().ok_or_else(|| EngineError::Other("Content-Aware fill needs a selection".into()))?;
@@ -149,23 +149,26 @@ pub fn fill(s: &mut Session, p: &Value) -> Result<Value> {
     s.edit("Fill", |doc, _| {
         let sel = doc.selection.clone();
         let (surf, lock) = crate::channel_cmds::target_surface(doc, id, p)?;
-        blend_into(surf, area, &source, sel.as_ref(), Blend { mode, opacity, keep_alpha: preserve || lock, restore });
+        blend_into(surf, area, &source, sel.as_ref(), Blend { mode, opacity, keep_alpha: preserve || lock, restore })?;
         Ok(())
     })?;
     Ok(out)
 }
 
-fn read_rgba(src: &Surface, area: Rect) -> Vec<[f32; 4]> {
-    let mut px = vec![[0.0f32; 4]; area.width() as usize * area.height() as usize];
+fn read_rgba(src: &Surface, area: Rect, purpose: &str) -> Result<Vec<[f32; 4]>> {
+    let len = (area.width() as usize)
+        .checked_mul(area.height() as usize)
+        .ok_or_else(|| EngineError::Other(format!("not enough memory for {purpose} (requested size overflowed); the document was not changed")))?;
+    let mut px = crate::allocation::filled(len, [0.0f32; 4], purpose)?;
     src.read_rgba_into(area, &mut px);
-    px
+    Ok(px)
 }
 
 /// `src` over `surf` across `area` (Normal, 100 %), each pixel weighted by `limit` when given:
 /// a paste into a layer mask or channel, which keeps the pasted pixels' luminosity (#1035).
-pub(crate) fn composite_over(surf: &mut Surface, src: &Surface, area: Rect, limit: Option<&Surface>) {
-    let source = Source::Pixels(area, read_rgba(src, area));
-    blend_into(surf, area, &source, limit, Blend { mode: BlendMode::Normal, opacity: 1.0, keep_alpha: false, restore: false });
+pub(crate) fn composite_over(surf: &mut Surface, src: &Surface, area: Rect, limit: Option<&Surface>) -> Result<()> {
+    let source = Source::Pixels(area, read_rgba(src, area, "pasting pixels")?);
+    blend_into(surf, area, &source, limit, Blend { mode: BlendMode::Normal, opacity: 1.0, keep_alpha: false, restore: false })
 }
 
 /// Reuse Edit › Fill's compositing for Edit › Stroke. The stroke's rasterized band
@@ -179,8 +182,8 @@ pub(crate) fn blend_color_mask(
     mode: BlendMode,
     opacity: f32,
     preserve_transparency: bool,
-) {
-    blend_into(surf, area, &Source::Color(color), Some(coverage), Blend { mode, opacity, keep_alpha: preserve_transparency, restore: false });
+) -> Result<()> {
+    blend_into(surf, area, &Source::Color(color), Some(coverage), Blend { mode, opacity, keep_alpha: preserve_transparency, restore: false })
 }
 
 /// The selection filled from its surroundings (`photocraft_algo::content_aware`), as straight
@@ -262,7 +265,7 @@ fn lerp(d: [f32; 4], c: [f32; 4], k: f32) -> [f32; 4] {
 /// Blend `source` into `surf` over `area`: per pixel, the selection coverage times the opacity,
 /// in the blend mode.
 /// Works tile by tile in parallel on the encoded pixels (no full-surface f32 round trip).
-fn blend_into(surf: &mut Surface, area: Rect, source: &Source, sel: Option<&Surface>, b: Blend) {
+fn blend_into(surf: &mut Surface, area: Rect, source: &Source, sel: Option<&Surface>, b: Blend) -> Result<()> {
     use rayon::prelude::*;
     let fmt = surf.format();
     // An opaque colour in Normal mode at 100 % that may replace alpha: fully covered tiles become
@@ -275,24 +278,35 @@ fn blend_into(surf: &mut Surface, area: Rect, source: &Source, sel: Option<&Surf
         }
         _ => None,
     };
-    let tiles = surf.take_tiles(area);
-    let done: Vec<_> = tiles
-        .into_par_iter()
-        .map(|(tc, tile)| {
-            let tr = tc.rect().intersect(&area);
-            let mask = sel.map(|m| Mask { bytes: m.tile(tc).map_or(m.default_bytes(), |t| t.bytes()), fmt: m.format(), origin: tc.rect() });
-            if let Some(s) = &solid
-                && tr == tc.rect()
-                && mask.as_ref().is_none_or(|m| m.full(tr))
-            {
-                return (tc, s.clone());
-            }
-            let mut tile = std::sync::Arc::unwrap_or_clone(tile);
-            blend_tile(tile.bytes_mut(), &fmt, tc.rect(), tr, source, mask.as_ref(), b);
-            (tc, std::sync::Arc::new(tile))
-        })
-        .collect();
+    let count = area.tiles().count();
+    let done = crate::allocation::capacity(count, "blending pixels")?;
+    let tiles = surf
+        .try_take_tiles(area)
+        .map_err(|e| EngineError::Other(format!("not enough memory while preparing pixel tiles ({e}); the document was not changed")))?;
+    let done = std::sync::Mutex::new(done);
+    tiles.into_par_iter().try_for_each(|(tc, tile)| -> Result<()> {
+        let tr = tc.rect().intersect(&area);
+        let mask = sel.map(|m| Mask { bytes: m.tile(tc).map_or(m.default_bytes(), |t| t.bytes()), fmt: m.format(), origin: tc.rect() });
+        if let Some(s) = &solid
+            && tr == tc.rect()
+            && mask.as_ref().is_none_or(|m| m.full(tr))
+        {
+            done.lock().unwrap_or_else(std::sync::PoisonError::into_inner).push((tc, s.clone()));
+            return Ok(());
+        }
+        let mut tile = match std::sync::Arc::try_unwrap(tile) {
+            Ok(tile) => tile,
+            Err(tile) => tile
+                .try_clone()
+                .map_err(|e| EngineError::Other(format!("not enough memory while blending a pixel tile ({e}); the document was not changed")))?,
+        };
+        blend_tile(tile.bytes_mut(), &fmt, tc.rect(), tr, source, mask.as_ref(), b);
+        done.lock().unwrap_or_else(std::sync::PoisonError::into_inner).push((tc, std::sync::Arc::new(tile)));
+        Ok(())
+    })?;
+    let done = done.into_inner().unwrap_or_else(std::sync::PoisonError::into_inner);
     surf.put_tiles(done);
+    Ok(())
 }
 
 /// The selection's coverage over one tile (its channel 0).
@@ -501,8 +515,8 @@ mod tests {
         let st = s.active().unwrap();
         let mut surf = st.doc.layer(st.active_layer.unwrap()).unwrap().surface().unwrap().clone();
         let t = std::time::Instant::now();
-        crate::pixels::fill_surface(&mut surf, Rect::new(0, 0, 6000, 4000), [0.2, 0.4, 0.6, 1.0], None, false);
-        println!("{:<48} {:>8.1} ms", "old fill_surface, no selection", t.elapsed().as_secs_f64() * 1000.0);
+        crate::pixels::try_fill_surface(&mut surf, Rect::new(0, 0, 6000, 4000), [0.2, 0.4, 0.6, 1.0], None, false).unwrap();
+        println!("{:<48} {:>8.1} ms", "fallible fill_surface, no selection", t.elapsed().as_secs_f64() * 1000.0);
     }
 
     #[test]
diff --git a/crates/engine/src/float_cmds.rs b/crates/engine/src/float_cmds.rs
index e4e5acc48..892f75474 100644
--- a/crates/engine/src/float_cmds.rs
+++ b/crates/engine/src/float_cmds.rs
@@ -82,7 +82,7 @@ impl CutParts {
                 rest.write_region(b, &rp);
             }
             if fill {
-                crate::pixels::fill_surface(&mut rest, b, background, Some(sel), true);
+                crate::pixels::try_fill_surface(&mut rest, b, background, Some(sel), true)?;
             }
             rest.prune();
             piece.write_region(b, &pp);
@@ -109,7 +109,7 @@ impl CutParts {
         let mut out = self.rest.clone();
         let piece = photocraft_algo::resample::translate_surface(&self.piece, dx, dy);
         if self.mask {
-            crate::fill_cmds::composite_over(&mut out, &piece, piece.content_bounds(), None);
+            crate::fill_cmds::composite_over(&mut out, &piece, piece.content_bounds(), None)?;
         } else {
             crate::transform_cmds::composite_over(&mut out, &piece);
         }
diff --git a/crates/engine/src/lib.rs b/crates/engine/src/lib.rs
index b6d8016e4..df55281a4 100644
--- a/crates/engine/src/lib.rs
+++ b/crates/engine/src/lib.rs
@@ -11,6 +11,7 @@ pub mod actions_cmds;
 pub mod adjust_cmds;
 pub mod adjust_params;
 pub mod align_cmds;
+mod allocation;
 pub mod analysis_cmds;
 pub mod artboard_cmds;
 pub mod automate_cmds;
@@ -140,6 +141,12 @@ pub enum EngineError {
 
 pub type Result<T> = std::result::Result<T, EngineError>;
 
+impl From<photocraft_raster::AllocationError> for EngineError {
+    fn from(error: photocraft_raster::AllocationError) -> Self {
+        Self::Other(format!("not enough memory for this operation ({error}); the document was not changed"))
+    }
+}
+
 /// The pixels of a raster layer (typically one a command just created), as an error instead
 /// of a panic if the layer has none.
 pub(crate) fn pixels_mut(l: &mut photocraft_doc::Layer) -> Result<&mut photocraft_raster::Surface> {
diff --git a/crates/engine/src/mode_cmds.rs b/crates/engine/src/mode_cmds.rs
index f5e9c37f5..2fcd30ed4 100644
--- a/crates/engine/src/mode_cmds.rs
+++ b/crates/engine/src/mode_cmds.rs
@@ -87,7 +87,7 @@ pub(crate) fn rotate_arbitrary(s: &mut Session, p: &Value) -> Result<Value> {
             if background && let Some(surf) = l.surface_mut() {
                 // The Background stays a Background: rotated pixels over the background colour.
                 let src = surf.content_bounds();
-                let rotated = photocraft_algo::transform::warp_surface(surf, src, &h, interp);
+                let rotated = photocraft_algo::transform::warp_surface(surf, src, &h, interp)?;
                 let mut base = Surface::new(fmt);
                 let fill = photocraft_raster::from_rgba(&fmt, bg);
                 base.write_region(canvas, &fill.repeat(canvas.width() as usize * canvas.height() as usize));
@@ -95,7 +95,7 @@ pub(crate) fn rotate_arbitrary(s: &mut Session, p: &Value) -> Result<Value> {
                 base.prune();
                 *surf = base;
                 if let Some(m) = l.mask.as_mut() {
-                    m.surface = crate::transform_cmds::warp_gray(&m.surface, &h, interp);
+                    m.surface = crate::transform_cmds::warp_gray(&m.surface, &h, interp)?;
                 }
             } else {
                 // Rotating the whole image moves locked layers too.
@@ -110,10 +110,10 @@ pub(crate) fn rotate_arbitrary(s: &mut Session, p: &Value) -> Result<Value> {
         }
         crate::canvas_geom::transform_doc_marks(doc, &a);
         for ch in doc.channels.iter_mut().chain(doc.quick_mask.as_mut()) {
-            ch.surface = crate::transform_cmds::warp_gray(&ch.surface, &h, interp);
+            ch.surface = crate::transform_cmds::warp_gray(&ch.surface, &h, interp)?;
         }
         if let Some(sel) = &doc.selection {
-            doc.selection = Some(crate::transform_cmds::warp_gray(sel, &h, Interp::Bilinear)).filter(|s| !s.content_bounds().is_empty());
+            doc.selection = Some(crate::transform_cmds::warp_gray(sel, &h, Interp::Bilinear)?).filter(|s| !s.content_bounds().is_empty());
         }
         // Type, shapes and smart objects re-render from their new geometry.
         crate::canvas_geom::refresh(doc, crate::canvas_geom::Refresh::All);
diff --git a/crates/engine/src/photo_cmds.rs b/crates/engine/src/photo_cmds.rs
index 50255c944..bd8c94742 100644
--- a/crates/engine/src/photo_cmds.rs
+++ b/crates/engine/src/photo_cmds.rs
@@ -156,12 +156,12 @@ fn exif_focal(srcs: &[Source]) -> Option<f64> {
 
 /// Warps the content of `surf` inside `rect` by a placement shifted by `offset`; image
 /// coordinates are surface coordinates minus `origin`.
-pub(crate) fn warp_placed(surf: &Surface, rect: Rect, origin: (f64, f64), pl: &Placement, offset: (f64, f64), interp: Interp) -> Surface {
+pub(crate) fn warp_placed(surf: &Surface, rect: Rect, origin: (f64, f64), pl: &Placement, offset: (f64, f64), interp: Interp) -> Result<Surface> {
     let pl = pl.translated(offset.0, offset.1);
     if let Some(h) = plane_matrix(&pl, origin) {
-        return warp_surface(surf, rect, &h, interp);
+        return Ok(warp_surface(surf, rect, &h, interp)?);
     }
-    warp_mesh_surface(surf, rect, &|x, y| pl.forward(x - origin.0, y - origin.1), interp)
+    Ok(warp_mesh_surface(surf, rect, &|x, y| pl.forward(x - origin.0, y - origin.1), interp))
 }
 
 /// The projective matrix of a planar, distortion-free placement (surface px → panorama px).
@@ -447,7 +447,7 @@ fn photomerge(s: &mut Session, p: &Value) -> Result<Value> {
                     .map(|(k, (&i, pl))| {
                         ctx.check()?;
                         ctx.progress(0.35 + 0.25 * k as f32 / placed.len().max(1) as f32, "");
-                        Ok(warp_placed(&srcs[i].surf, Rect::new(0, 0, srcs[i].w as i32, srcs[i].h as i32), (0.0, 0.0), pl, offset, Interp::Bicubic))
+                        warp_placed(&srcs[i].surf, Rect::new(0, 0, srcs[i].w as i32, srcs[i].h as i32), (0.0, 0.0), pl, offset, Interp::Bicubic)
                     })
                     .collect::<Result<Vec<Surface>>>()?
             };
@@ -758,7 +758,7 @@ fn crop_and_straighten(s: &mut Session, _p: &Value) -> Result<Value> {
         let corners = f.corners();
         let hq = Homography::rect_to_quad([0.0, 0.0, pw as f64, ph as f64], corners).and_then(|h| h.inverse());
         let Some(hm) = hq else { continue };
-        let warped = warp_surface(&flat, area, &hm, Interp::Bicubic);
+        let warped = warp_surface(&flat, area, &hm, Interp::Bicubic)?;
         let keep = Rect::new(0, 0, pw as i32, ph as i32);
         let mut px = Surface::new(fmt);
         px.write_region(keep, &warped.read_region(keep));
diff --git a/crates/engine/src/pixels.rs b/crates/engine/src/pixels.rs
index 1bf1face4..b917ffac3 100644
--- a/crates/engine/src/pixels.rs
+++ b/crates/engine/src/pixels.rs
@@ -86,10 +86,24 @@ fn adjusted(s: &Surface, r: Rect, adj: &Adjustment, selection: Option<&Surface>,
 }
 
 /// Fill (respecting selection coverage) with a straight RGBA colour.
-pub fn fill_surface(s: &mut Surface, area: Rect, color: [f32; 4], selection: Option<&Surface>, lock_transparency: bool) {
+pub(crate) fn try_fill_surface(s: &mut Surface, area: Rect, color: [f32; 4], selection: Option<&Surface>, lock_transparency: bool) -> crate::Result<()> {
     let fmt = s.format();
     let n = fmt.channels();
-    let mut region = s.read_region(area);
+    let mut region = crate::allocation::read_region(s, area, "filling pixels")?;
+    fill_region(&mut region, fmt, n, area, color, selection, lock_transparency);
+    s.try_write_region(area, &region)
+        .map_err(|e| crate::EngineError::Other(format!("not enough memory while writing filled pixels ({e}); the document was not changed")))
+}
+
+fn fill_region(
+    region: &mut [f32],
+    fmt: photocraft_color::PixelFormat,
+    n: usize,
+    area: Rect,
+    color: [f32; 4],
+    selection: Option<&Surface>,
+    lock_transparency: bool,
+) {
     let w = area.width() as usize;
     for (i, px) in region.chunks_exact_mut(n).enumerate() {
         let x = area.x0 + (i % w) as i32;
@@ -112,17 +126,24 @@ pub fn fill_surface(s: &mut Surface, area: Rect, color: [f32; 4], selection: Opt
         photocraft_raster::from_rgba_into(&fmt, o, &mut enc);
         px.copy_from_slice(&enc[..n]);
     }
-    s.write_region(area, &region);
 }
 
 /// Clear pixels (make transparent) within the selection.
-pub fn clear_surface(s: &mut Surface, area: Rect, selection: Option<&Surface>) {
+pub(crate) fn try_clear_surface(s: &mut Surface, area: Rect, selection: Option<&Surface>) -> crate::Result<()> {
     let fmt = s.format();
     let n = fmt.channels();
     if !fmt.alpha {
-        return;
+        return Ok(());
     }
-    let mut region = s.read_region(area);
+    let mut region = crate::allocation::read_region(s, area, "erasing pixels")?;
+    clear_region(&mut region, n, area, selection);
+    s.try_write_region(area, &region)
+        .map_err(|e| crate::EngineError::Other(format!("not enough memory while erasing pixels ({e}); the document was not changed")))?;
+    s.prune();
+    Ok(())
+}
+
+fn clear_region(region: &mut [f32], n: usize, area: Rect, selection: Option<&Surface>) {
     let w = area.width() as usize;
     for (i, px) in region.chunks_exact_mut(n).enumerate() {
         let k = selection.map_or(1.0, |sel| sel.sample_channel(area.x0 + (i % w) as i32, area.y0 + (i / w) as i32, 0));
@@ -132,8 +153,6 @@ pub fn clear_surface(s: &mut Surface, area: Rect, selection: Option<&Surface>) {
             px.fill(0.0);
         }
     }
-    s.write_region(area, &region);
-    s.prune();
 }
 
 /// Remap a surface through a pixel-coordinate mapping (used for flips/rotations).
diff --git a/crates/engine/src/select_extra_cmds.rs b/crates/engine/src/select_extra_cmds.rs
index 9d42cb36c..e2c9e7059 100644
--- a/crates/engine/src/select_extra_cmds.rs
+++ b/crates/engine/src/select_extra_cmds.rs
@@ -195,7 +195,7 @@ fn transform_selection(s: &mut Session, p: &Value) -> Result<Value> {
     }
     let selected = s.edit("Transform Selection", |doc, _| {
         if let Some(sel) = &doc.selection {
-            doc.selection = Some(crate::transform_cmds::warp_gray(sel, &h, interp)).filter(|s| !s.content_bounds().is_empty());
+            doc.selection = Some(crate::transform_cmds::warp_gray(sel, &h, interp)?).filter(|s| !s.content_bounds().is_empty());
         }
         Ok(doc.selection.is_some())
     })?;
diff --git a/crates/engine/src/smart_cmds.rs b/crates/engine/src/smart_cmds.rs
index 3a3dd7e52..5298f8046 100644
--- a/crates/engine/src/smart_cmds.rs
+++ b/crates/engine/src/smart_cmds.rs
@@ -359,12 +359,12 @@ pub fn render(doc: &Document, sm: &SmartObject) -> Result<Option<Surface>> {
             Some(p) => {
                 let [h0, h1, h2, h3, h4, h5, h6, h7, h8] = *p;
                 let h = Homography([h0 / k, h1 / k, h2, h3 / k, h4 / k, h5, h6 / k, h7 / k, h8]);
-                photocraft_algo::warp::place_source_projective(&img.surface, img.bounds, &h, None)
+                photocraft_algo::warp::place_source_projective(&img.surface, img.bounds, &h, None)?
             }
             None => {
                 let [a, b, c, d, e, f] = sm.transform.m;
                 let t = Affine { m: [a / k, b / k, c / k, d / k, e, f] };
-                photocraft_algo::warp::place_source(&img.surface, img.bounds, &t, None)
+                photocraft_algo::warp::place_source(&img.surface, img.bounds, &t, None)?
             }
         };
         return Ok(Some(apply_smart_filters(&placed, sm, doc.bounds())));
@@ -375,8 +375,8 @@ pub fn render(doc: &Document, sm: &SmartObject) -> Result<Option<Surface>> {
     };
     // Through the warp (source space) and the transform in one pass; whole-pixel moves are exact.
     let placed = match &sm.perspective {
-        Some(p) => photocraft_algo::warp::place_source_projective(&img.surface, img.bounds, &Homography(*p), sm.warp.as_ref()),
-        None => photocraft_algo::warp::place_source(&img.surface, img.bounds, &sm.transform, sm.warp.as_ref()),
+        Some(p) => photocraft_algo::warp::place_source_projective(&img.surface, img.bounds, &Homography(*p), sm.warp.as_ref())?,
+        None => photocraft_algo::warp::place_source(&img.surface, img.bounds, &sm.transform, sm.warp.as_ref())?,
     };
     Ok(Some(apply_smart_filters(&placed, sm, doc.bounds())))
 }
diff --git a/crates/engine/src/transform_cmds.rs b/crates/engine/src/transform_cmds.rs
index b2ad24a56..1199c6032 100644
--- a/crates/engine/src/transform_cmds.rs
+++ b/crates/engine/src/transform_cmds.rs
@@ -35,43 +35,53 @@ pub fn transform_bounds(doc: &Document, layer: &Layer) -> Rect {
 
 /// Warp a surface whose pixels outside the content read as `default` (masks, selections):
 /// warp the content with alpha, then flatten back onto the default value.
-pub(crate) fn warp_gray(s: &Surface, h: &Homography, interp: Interp) -> Surface {
+pub(crate) fn warp_gray(s: &Surface, h: &Homography, interp: Interp) -> Result<Surface> {
     let default = s.default_pixel().first().copied().unwrap_or(0.0);
     let fmt = s.format();
     let src = s.content_bounds();
     let mut out = Surface::with_default(fmt, &[default]);
     if src.is_empty() {
-        return out;
+        return Ok(out);
     }
     // Content-only copy (default 0 + alpha) so the "outside" is transparent during the warp.
     let with_alpha = PixelFormat::new(fmt.mode, fmt.sample, true);
     let mut tmp = Surface::new(with_alpha);
-    let v = s.read_region(src);
-    tmp.write_region(src, &v.iter().flat_map(|g| [*g, 1.0]).collect::<Vec<f32>>());
-    let w = warp_surface(&tmp, src, h, interp);
+    let v = crate::allocation::read_region(s, src, "transforming a mask or channel")?;
+    let mut lifted =
+        crate::allocation::filled(v.len().checked_mul(2).ok_or_else(|| bad("the mask is too large to transform"))?, 0.0, "transforming a mask or channel")?;
+    let (lifted_pairs, _) = lifted.as_chunks_mut::<2>();
+    for (g, px) in v.iter().zip(lifted_pairs) {
+        px.copy_from_slice(&[*g, 1.0]);
+    }
+    tmp.try_write_region(src, &lifted)?;
+    let w = warp_surface(&tmp, src, h, interp)?;
     // Clear the old content region, then composite the warped content over it. These are written as
     // two sparse regions rather than one dense `src ∪ warped` block: a transform that moves the
     // content far away (e.g. a huge translation) would otherwise allocate a buffer spanning both and
     // hang/OOM. `Surface` is tile-sparse, so distant regions cost only their own tiles.
-    let old: Vec<f32> = vec![default; src.width() as usize * src.height() as usize];
-    out.write_region(src, &old);
+    let old_len = (src.width() as usize).checked_mul(src.height() as usize).ok_or_else(|| bad("the mask is too large to transform"))?;
+    let old = crate::allocation::filled(old_len, default, "transforming a mask or channel")?;
+    out.try_write_region(src, &old)?;
     let b = w.content_bounds();
     if !b.is_empty() {
-        let px = w.read_region(b);
-        let flat: Vec<f32> = px.as_chunks::<2>().0.iter().map(|p| p[0] * p[1] + default * (1.0 - p[1])).collect();
-        out.write_region(b, &flat);
+        let px = crate::allocation::read_region(&w, b, "flattening a transformed mask or channel")?;
+        let mut flat = crate::allocation::filled(px.len() / 2, 0.0, "flattening a transformed mask or channel")?;
+        for (p, f) in px.as_chunks::<2>().0.iter().zip(&mut flat) {
+            *f = p[0] * p[1] + default * (1.0 - p[1]);
+        }
+        out.try_write_region(b, &flat)?;
     }
     out.prune();
-    out
+    Ok(out)
 }
 
 /// Split a single-channel surface whose outside reads as its default (a mask, a channel) by a
 /// selection: (the selected values as grey + alpha = selection, the surface with the selected
 /// values replaced by the default). `None` for surfaces that aren't a single grey channel.
-pub fn split_gray_selected(s: &Surface, sel: &Surface) -> Option<(Surface, Surface)> {
+pub fn split_gray_selected(s: &Surface, sel: &Surface) -> Result<Option<(Surface, Surface)>> {
     let fmt = s.format();
     if fmt.alpha || fmt.channels() != 1 {
-        return None;
+        return Ok(None);
     }
     let default = s.default_pixel().first().copied().unwrap_or(0.0);
     let mut rest = s.clone();
@@ -80,43 +90,49 @@ pub fn split_gray_selected(s: &Surface, sel: &Surface) -> Option<(Surface, Surfa
     // the moved region stays aligned with the moved pixels.
     let area = sel.content_bounds();
     if area.is_empty() {
-        return Some((lifted, rest));
+        return Ok(Some((lifted, rest)));
     }
-    let v = s.read_region(area);
+    let v = crate::allocation::read_region(s, area, "transforming a selected mask or channel")?;
     let w = area.width() as usize;
-    let mut lp = Vec::with_capacity(v.len() * 2);
-    let mut rp = Vec::with_capacity(v.len());
+    let mut lp = crate::allocation::capacity(
+        v.len().checked_mul(2).ok_or_else(|| bad("the selected mask is too large to transform"))?,
+        "transforming a selected mask or channel",
+    )?;
+    let mut rp = crate::allocation::capacity(v.len(), "transforming a selected mask or channel")?;
     for (i, g) in v.iter().enumerate() {
         let (x, y) = (area.x0 + (i % w) as i32, area.y0 + (i / w) as i32);
         let k = sel.sample_channel(x, y, 0);
         lp.extend([*g, k]);
         rp.push(g * (1.0 - k) + default * k);
     }
-    lifted.write_region(area, &lp);
+    lifted.try_write_region(area, &lp)?;
     lifted.prune();
-    rest.write_region(area, &rp);
+    rest.try_write_region(area, &rp)?;
     rest.prune();
-    Some((lifted, rest))
+    Ok(Some((lifted, rest)))
 }
 
 /// [`warp_gray`] limited to a selection: only the selected values move (the vacated area reads as
 /// the default), as the selected pixels of the layer do.
-pub(crate) fn warp_gray_selected(s: &Surface, sel: &Surface, h: &Homography, interp: Interp) -> Surface {
-    let Some((lifted, mut out)) = split_gray_selected(s, sel) else { return warp_gray(s, h, interp) };
+pub(crate) fn warp_gray_selected(s: &Surface, sel: &Surface, h: &Homography, interp: Interp) -> Result<Surface> {
+    let Some((lifted, mut out)) = split_gray_selected(s, sel)? else { return warp_gray(s, h, interp) };
     let src = lifted.content_bounds();
     if src.is_empty() {
-        return out;
+        return Ok(out);
     }
-    let w = warp_surface(&lifted, src, h, interp);
+    let w = warp_surface(&lifted, src, h, interp)?;
     let b = w.content_bounds();
     if !b.is_empty() {
-        let moved = w.read_region(b);
-        let under = out.read_region(b);
-        let flat: Vec<f32> = moved.as_chunks::<2>().0.iter().zip(&under).map(|(p, u)| p[0] * p[1] + u * (1.0 - p[1])).collect();
-        out.write_region(b, &flat);
+        let moved = crate::allocation::read_region(&w, b, "compositing transformed mask pixels")?;
+        let under = crate::allocation::read_region(&out, b, "compositing transformed mask pixels")?;
+        let mut flat = crate::allocation::filled(under.len(), 0.0, "compositing transformed mask pixels")?;
+        for (i, (p, u)) in moved.as_chunks::<2>().0.iter().zip(&under).enumerate() {
+            flat[i] = p[0] * p[1] + u * (1.0 - p[1]);
+        }
+        out.try_write_region(b, &flat)?;
     }
     out.prune();
-    out
+    Ok(out)
 }
 
 /// The surface Free Transform moves by itself when the params target one (`"target"`): an
@@ -167,6 +183,7 @@ pub(crate) fn group_locks(doc: &Document, id: LayerId) -> Locks {
 
 /// `group` holds the locks `l` inherits from the groups around it ([`group_locks`]).
 pub(crate) fn transform_layer(doc_sel: Option<&Surface>, group: Locks, l: &mut Layer, h: &Homography, affine: Option<Affine>, interp: Interp) -> Result<()> {
+    crate::allocation::checkpoint("transforming pixels")?;
     // Photoshop turns the Background into a normal layer before transforming it.
     if l.locks.position && l.name == "Background" {
         l.locks.position = false;
@@ -209,10 +226,10 @@ pub(crate) fn transform_layer(doc_sel: Option<&Surface>, group: Locks, l: &mut L
             // Fallback appearance for sources that can't be re-rendered.
             if let Some(c) = &mut sm.cache {
                 let src = c.content_bounds();
-                *c = warp_surface(c, src, h, interp);
+                *c = warp_surface(c, src, h, interp)?;
             }
             if let Some(m) = &mut sm.filter_mask {
-                m.surface = warp_gray(&m.surface, h, interp);
+                m.surface = warp_gray(&m.surface, h, interp)?;
             }
         }
         _ => {
@@ -221,13 +238,13 @@ pub(crate) fn transform_layer(doc_sel: Option<&Surface>, group: Locks, l: &mut L
                 *surf = match doc_sel {
                     // Only the selected pixels move: lift them, clear them, warp and paste back.
                     Some(sel) => {
-                        let (lifted, mut rest) = split_selected(surf, sel);
-                        let moved = warp_surface(&lifted, src, h, interp);
+                        let (lifted, mut rest) = split_selected(surf, sel)?;
+                        let moved = warp_surface(&lifted, src, h, interp)?;
                         composite_over(&mut rest, &moved);
                         rest.prune();
                         rest
                     }
-                    None => warp_surface(surf, src, h, interp),
+                    None => warp_surface(surf, src, h, interp)?,
                 };
             }
         }
@@ -236,8 +253,8 @@ pub(crate) fn transform_layer(doc_sel: Option<&Surface>, group: Locks, l: &mut L
         && m.linked
     {
         m.surface = match mask_sel {
-            Some(sel) => warp_gray_selected(&m.surface, sel, h, interp),
-            None => warp_gray(&m.surface, h, interp),
+            Some(sel) => warp_gray_selected(&m.surface, sel, h, interp)?,
+            None => warp_gray(&m.surface, h, interp)?,
         };
     }
     if let Some(vm) = l.vector_mask.as_mut()
@@ -250,18 +267,19 @@ pub(crate) fn transform_layer(doc_sel: Option<&Surface>, group: Locks, l: &mut L
 }
 
 /// Split a layer surface by a selection: (selected pixels, everything else), both with alpha.
-pub fn split_selected(surf: &Surface, sel: &Surface) -> (Surface, Surface) {
+pub fn split_selected(surf: &Surface, sel: &Surface) -> Result<(Surface, Surface)> {
     let fmt = surf.format();
     let with_alpha = PixelFormat::new(fmt.mode, fmt.sample, true);
     let mut lifted = Surface::new(with_alpha);
-    let mut rest = surf.convert(with_alpha);
+    let mut rest = surf.try_convert(with_alpha)?;
     let src = surf.content_bounds();
     if src.is_empty() {
-        return (lifted, rest);
+        return Ok((lifted, rest));
     }
     let n = with_alpha.channels();
-    let px = rest.read_region(src);
-    let mut lp = px.clone();
+    let px = crate::allocation::read_region(&rest, src, "transforming selected pixels")?;
+    let mut lp = crate::allocation::filled(px.len(), 0.0, "transforming selected pixels")?;
+    lp.copy_from_slice(&px);
     let mut rp = px;
     let w = src.width() as usize;
     // A pixel the selection fully lifts out is reset to the surface's (transparent) default;
@@ -280,10 +298,10 @@ pub fn split_selected(surf: &Surface, sel: &Surface) -> (Surface, Surface) {
             r.iter_mut().zip(&rest_clear).for_each(|(d, c)| *d = *c);
         }
     }
-    lifted.write_region(src, &lp);
+    lifted.try_write_region(src, &lp)?;
     lifted.prune();
-    rest.write_region(src, &rp);
-    (lifted, rest)
+    rest.try_write_region(src, &rp)?;
+    Ok((lifted, rest))
 }
 
 pub(crate) fn refresh_text(doc: &Document, l: &mut Layer) {
@@ -390,11 +408,11 @@ fn transform(s: &mut Session, p: &Value) -> Result<Value> {
             // A targeted unlinked mask, alpha channel or Quick Mask transforms by itself.
             let (surf, _) = crate::channel_cmds::target_surface(doc, id, p)?;
             *surf = match &sel {
-                Some(sel) => warp_gray_selected(surf, sel, &h, interp),
-                None => warp_gray(surf, &h, interp),
+                Some(sel) => warp_gray_selected(surf, sel, &h, interp)?,
+                None => warp_gray(surf, &h, interp)?,
             };
             if let Some(sel) = &doc.selection {
-                doc.selection = Some(warp_gray(sel, &h, Interp::Bilinear)).filter(|s| !s.content_bounds().is_empty());
+                doc.selection = Some(warp_gray(sel, &h, Interp::Bilinear)?).filter(|s| !s.content_bounds().is_empty());
             }
             return Ok(());
         }
@@ -410,7 +428,7 @@ fn transform(s: &mut Session, p: &Value) -> Result<Value> {
         }
         // The selection outline moves with the pixels.
         if let Some(sel) = &doc.selection {
-            doc.selection = Some(warp_gray(sel, &h, Interp::Bilinear)).filter(|s| !s.content_bounds().is_empty());
+            doc.selection = Some(warp_gray(sel, &h, Interp::Bilinear)?).filter(|s| !s.content_bounds().is_empty());
         }
         Ok(())
     })?;
@@ -690,6 +708,6 @@ mod tests {
         let s = Surface::new(PixelFormat::RGBA8);
         let mut sel = Surface::new(PixelFormat::GRAY8);
         sel.fill_rect(Rect::new(0, 0, 4, 4), &[1.0]);
-        assert!(split_gray_selected(&s, &sel).is_none());
+        assert!(matches!(split_gray_selected(&s, &sel), Ok(None)));
     }
 }
diff --git a/crates/engine/src/vp_cmds.rs b/crates/engine/src/vp_cmds.rs
index 0c8cdbbec..4d386d60d 100644
--- a/crates/engine/src/vp_cmds.rs
+++ b/crates/engine/src/vp_cmds.rs
@@ -145,7 +145,7 @@ fn vanishing_point(s: &mut Session, p: &Value) -> Result<Value> {
         }
         let surf = l.surface_mut().ok_or_else(|| EngineError::Other("Vanishing Point needs a pixel layer".into()))?;
         for (plane, src, rect, at, width) in &pastes {
-            if let Some(out) = paste(&sc, *plane, src, *rect, *at, *width) {
+            if let Some(out) = paste(&sc, *plane, src, *rect, *at, *width)? {
                 over(surf, &out);
             }
         }
diff --git a/crates/engine/src/warp_cmds.rs b/crates/engine/src/warp_cmds.rs
index bec3e1ecb..daecc6b9c 100644
--- a/crates/engine/src/warp_cmds.rs
+++ b/crates/engine/src/warp_cmds.rs
@@ -153,7 +153,7 @@ fn warp_layer(doc_sel: Option<&Surface>, group: Locks, l: &mut Layer, w: &Warp,
             if let Some(surf) = l.surface_mut() {
                 *surf = match doc_sel {
                     Some(sel) => {
-                        let (lifted, mut rest) = crate::transform_cmds::split_selected(surf, sel);
+                        let (lifted, mut rest) = crate::transform_cmds::split_selected(surf, sel)?;
                         let moved = warp_mesh_surface(&lifted, rect, &map, interp);
                         crate::transform_cmds::composite_over(&mut rest, &moved);
                         rest.prune();
@@ -164,7 +164,7 @@ fn warp_layer(doc_sel: Option<&Surface>, group: Locks, l: &mut Layer, w: &Warp,
                         let fmt = surf.format();
                         let warped = warp_mesh_surface(surf, rect, &map, interp);
                         let mut rest = surf.convert(photocraft_color::PixelFormat::new(fmt.mode, fmt.sample, true));
-                        crate::pixels::clear_surface(&mut rest, rect, None);
+                        crate::pixels::try_clear_surface(&mut rest, rect, None)?;
                         crate::transform_cmds::composite_over(&mut rest, &warped);
                         rest.prune();
                         rest
diff --git a/crates/io/src/psd_export.rs b/crates/io/src/psd_export.rs
index 58f297b7b..bc7cfdb00 100644
--- a/crates/io/src/psd_export.rs
+++ b/crates/io/src/psd_export.rs
@@ -715,7 +715,13 @@ impl Ex {
                         }
                         None => photocraft_algo::warp::place_source(&img, img_bounds, &sm.transform, sm.warp.as_ref()),
                     };
-                    crate::smart_map::feid_item(&placed, &unfiltered, sm.filter_mask.as_ref(), bounds, self.fmt)
+                    match unfiltered {
+                        Ok(unfiltered) => crate::smart_map::feid_item(&placed, &unfiltered, sm.filter_mask.as_ref(), bounds, self.fmt),
+                        Err(e) => {
+                            warnings.push(format!("smart filter mask was not re-rendered for PSD export ({e})"));
+                            None
+                        }
+                    }
                 }
                 _ => None,
             };
diff --git a/crates/raster/src/lib.rs b/crates/raster/src/lib.rs
index bf52e0668..64c747686 100644
--- a/crates/raster/src/lib.rs
+++ b/crates/raster/src/lib.rs
@@ -11,11 +11,30 @@ mod interrupt;
 pub use interrupt::{Cancelled, Interrupt};
 
 use std::collections::BTreeMap;
+use std::fmt;
 use std::sync::Arc;
 
 use photocraft_color::{ColorMode, PixelFormat, SampleType, read_sample, write_sample};
 use photocraft_geom::{Rect, TILE_SIZE, TileCoord};
 
+/// A checked surface allocation could not be represented or reserved.
+#[derive(Clone, Copy, Debug, PartialEq, Eq)]
+pub enum AllocationError {
+    SizeOverflow,
+    NotEnoughMemory { bytes: usize },
+}
+
+impl fmt::Display for AllocationError {
+    fn fmt(&self, f: &mut fmt::Formatter<'_>) -> fmt::Result {
+        match self {
+            Self::SizeOverflow => f.write_str("requested surface allocation is too large"),
+            Self::NotEnoughMemory { bytes } => write!(f, "not enough memory to allocate {} bytes", bytes),
+        }
+    }
+}
+
+impl std::error::Error for AllocationError {}
+
 /// Pixel storage for one tile: `TILE_SIZE² × bytes_per_pixel`, row-major, interleaved channels.
 #[derive(Clone, Debug, PartialEq, Eq)]
 pub struct Tile {
@@ -23,6 +42,29 @@ pub struct Tile {
 }
 
 impl Tile {
+    fn try_filled(format: &PixelFormat, pixel: &[u8]) -> Result<Self, AllocationError> {
+        let n = (TILE_SIZE * TILE_SIZE) as usize;
+        let bytes = n.checked_mul(format.bytes_per_pixel()).ok_or(AllocationError::SizeOverflow)?;
+        let mut data = Vec::new();
+        data.try_reserve_exact(bytes).map_err(|_| AllocationError::NotEnoughMemory { bytes })?;
+        data.resize(bytes, 0);
+        if pixel.iter().any(|&b| b != 0) {
+            for px in data.chunks_exact_mut(pixel.len()) {
+                px.copy_from_slice(pixel);
+            }
+        }
+        Ok(Tile { data: data.into_boxed_slice() })
+    }
+
+    /// Clone this tile's pixel buffer with a fallible reservation.
+    pub fn try_clone(&self) -> Result<Self, AllocationError> {
+        let bytes = self.data.len();
+        let mut data = Vec::new();
+        data.try_reserve_exact(bytes).map_err(|_| AllocationError::NotEnoughMemory { bytes })?;
+        data.extend_from_slice(&self.data);
+        Ok(Tile { data: data.into_boxed_slice() })
+    }
+
     fn filled(format: &PixelFormat, pixel: &[u8]) -> Self {
         let n = (TILE_SIZE * TILE_SIZE) as usize;
         let mut data = vec![0u8; n * format.bytes_per_pixel()];
@@ -55,6 +97,47 @@ impl PartialEq for Surface {
 }
 
 impl Surface {
+    /// Reads a region into a newly allocated buffer, returning an error instead of aborting if
+    /// the requested pixel buffer cannot be represented or reserved.
+    pub fn try_read_region(&self, r: Rect) -> Result<Vec<f32>, AllocationError> {
+        let len = (r.width() as usize).checked_mul(r.height() as usize).and_then(|n| n.checked_mul(self.channels())).ok_or(AllocationError::SizeOverflow)?;
+        let bytes = len.checked_mul(std::mem::size_of::<f32>()).ok_or(AllocationError::SizeOverflow)?;
+        let mut out = Vec::new();
+        out.try_reserve_exact(len).map_err(|_| AllocationError::NotEnoughMemory { bytes })?;
+        out.resize(len, 0.0);
+        self.read_region_into(r, &mut out);
+        Ok(out)
+    }
+
+    /// Reads a region as encoded interleaved bytes with fallible allocation.
+    pub fn try_to_interleaved(&self, r: Rect) -> Result<Vec<u8>, AllocationError> {
+        let bpp = self.format.bytes_per_pixel();
+        let len = (r.width() as usize).checked_mul(r.height() as usize).and_then(|n| n.checked_mul(bpp)).ok_or(AllocationError::SizeOverflow)?;
+        let mut out = Vec::new();
+        out.try_reserve_exact(len).map_err(|_| AllocationError::NotEnoughMemory { bytes: len })?;
+        out.resize(len, 0);
+        let w = r.width() as usize;
+        for tc in r.tiles() {
+            let tr = tc.rect().intersect(&r);
+            let span = tr.width() as usize * bpp;
+            for y in tr.y0..tr.y1 {
+                let dst = (((y - r.y0) as usize) * w + (tr.x0 - r.x0) as usize) * bpp;
+                match self.tiles.get(&tc) {
+                    Some(t) => {
+                        let src = (((y - tc.ty * TILE_SIZE) as usize) * TILE_SIZE as usize + (tr.x0 - tc.tx * TILE_SIZE) as usize) * bpp;
+                        out[dst..dst + span].copy_from_slice(&t.data[src..src + span]);
+                    }
+                    None => {
+                        for px in out[dst..dst + span].chunks_exact_mut(bpp) {
+                            px.copy_from_slice(&self.default_pixel);
+                        }
+                    }
+                }
+            }
+        }
+        Ok(out)
+    }
+
     /// Transparent/zero surface.
     pub fn new(format: PixelFormat) -> Self {
         Self { format, default_pixel: vec![0u8; format.bytes_per_pixel()].into_boxed_slice(), tiles: BTreeMap::new() }
@@ -94,6 +177,44 @@ impl Surface {
         Arc::make_mut(arc)
     }
 
+    /// Fallible counterpart to [`Surface::tile_mut`]. Pixel storage is reserved before changing
+    /// the surface, and a shared tile is copied only after its replacement has been allocated.
+    pub fn try_tile_mut(&mut self, c: TileCoord) -> Result<&mut Tile, AllocationError> {
+        if !self.tiles.contains_key(&c) {
+            let tile = Arc::new(Tile::try_filled(&self.format, &self.default_pixel)?);
+            self.tiles.insert(c, tile);
+        } else if self.tiles.get(&c).is_some_and(|t| Arc::strong_count(t) > 1) {
+            let original = self.tiles.get(&c).ok_or(AllocationError::SizeOverflow)?;
+            let tile = Arc::new(original.try_clone()?);
+            self.tiles.insert(c, tile);
+        }
+        self.tiles.get_mut(&c).and_then(Arc::get_mut).ok_or(AllocationError::SizeOverflow)
+    }
+
+    /// Writes a region using fallible pixel-tile allocations. Callers that need transactional
+    /// document updates should perform this on their staged document copy and commit on success.
+    pub fn try_write_region(&mut self, r: Rect, data: &[f32]) -> Result<(), AllocationError> {
+        let n = self.channels();
+        let sample = self.format.sample;
+        let expected = (r.width() as usize).checked_mul(r.height() as usize).and_then(|v| v.checked_mul(n)).ok_or(AllocationError::SizeOverflow)?;
+        if data.len() != expected {
+            return Err(AllocationError::SizeOverflow);
+        }
+        for tc in r.tiles() {
+            let tr = tc.rect().intersect(&r);
+            let t = self.try_tile_mut(tc)?;
+            let span = tr.width() as usize * n;
+            for y in tr.y0..tr.y1 {
+                let src = (((y - r.y0) as usize) * r.width() as usize + (tr.x0 - r.x0) as usize) * n;
+                let dst = (((y - tc.ty * TILE_SIZE) as usize) * TILE_SIZE as usize + (tr.x0 - tc.tx * TILE_SIZE) as usize) * n;
+                for (i, v) in data[src..src + span].iter().enumerate() {
+                    write_sample(&mut t.data, sample, dst + i, *v);
+                }
+            }
+        }
+        Ok(())
+    }
+
     /// Coarse bounds: union of allocated tile rects.
     pub fn tile_bounds(&self) -> Rect {
         self.tiles.keys().fold(Rect::EMPTY, |r, c| r.union(&c.rect()))
@@ -429,6 +550,24 @@ impl Surface {
             .collect()
     }
 
+    /// Fallible counterpart to [`Surface::take_tiles`]. Reserves the complete result and any
+    /// default tile before removing a tile, so a reservation failure leaves the surface intact.
+    pub fn try_take_tiles(&mut self, r: Rect) -> Result<Vec<(TileCoord, Arc<Tile>)>, AllocationError> {
+        let count = r.tiles().count();
+        let bytes = count.checked_mul(std::mem::size_of::<(TileCoord, Arc<Tile>)>()).ok_or(AllocationError::SizeOverflow)?;
+        let mut out = Vec::new();
+        out.try_reserve_exact(count).map_err(|_| AllocationError::NotEnoughMemory { bytes })?;
+        let has_missing = r.tiles().any(|c| !self.tiles.contains_key(&c));
+        let blank = if has_missing { Some(Arc::new(Tile::try_filled(&self.format, &self.default_pixel)?)) } else { None };
+        for c in r.tiles() {
+            let tile = self.tiles.remove(&c).or_else(|| blank.clone());
+            if let Some(tile) = tile {
+                out.push((c, tile));
+            }
+        }
+        Ok(out)
+    }
+
     /// Put tiles back (see [`Surface::take_tiles`]); each replaces the tile at its coordinate.
     pub fn put_tiles(&mut self, tiles: impl IntoIterator<Item = (TileCoord, Arc<Tile>)>) {
         for (c, t) in tiles {
@@ -590,6 +729,29 @@ impl Surface {
         out
     }
 
+    /// Convert a surface while reserving each replacement tile fallibly.
+    pub fn try_convert(&self, to: PixelFormat) -> Result<Surface, AllocationError> {
+        let mut out = Surface::with_default(to, &convert_pixel(&self.format, &to, &self.default_pixel()));
+        let from_n = self.channels();
+        let mut src = Vec::new();
+        src.try_reserve_exact(from_n).map_err(|_| AllocationError::NotEnoughMemory { bytes: from_n * std::mem::size_of::<f32>() })?;
+        src.resize(from_n, 0.0f32);
+        for (c, t) in &self.tiles {
+            let dst = out.try_tile_mut(*c)?;
+            let px_count = (TILE_SIZE * TILE_SIZE) as usize;
+            for i in 0..px_count {
+                for (k, v) in src.iter_mut().enumerate() {
+                    *v = read_sample(&t.data, self.format.sample, i * from_n + k);
+                }
+                let px = convert_pixel(&self.format, &to, &src);
+                for (k, v) in px.iter().enumerate() {
+                    write_sample(&mut dst.data, to.sample, i * to.channels() + k, *v);
+                }
+            }
+        }
+        Ok(out)
+    }
+
     /// Composite-friendly RGBA read (converts from the surface's model).
     pub fn rgba(&self, x: i32, y: i32) -> [f32; 4] {
         let p = self.pixel(x, y);
@@ -747,6 +909,22 @@ mod tests {
         }
     }
 
+    #[test]
+    fn fallible_region_reads_report_size_overflow() {
+        let surface = Surface::new(PixelFormat::RGBA8);
+        let huge = Rect::new(i32::MIN, i32::MIN, i32::MAX, i32::MAX);
+        assert_eq!(surface.try_read_region(huge), Err(AllocationError::SizeOverflow));
+        assert_eq!(surface.try_to_interleaved(huge), Err(AllocationError::SizeOverflow));
+    }
+
+    #[test]
+    fn fallible_region_write_rejects_bad_input_without_mutating_surface() {
+        let mut surface = Surface::new(PixelFormat::RGBA8);
+        let before = surface.clone();
+        assert_eq!(surface.try_write_region(Rect::new(0, 0, 2, 2), &[1.0]), Err(AllocationError::SizeOverflow));
+        assert_eq!(surface, before);
+    }
+
     #[test]
     fn fill_rect_shares_covered_tiles_and_edits_stay_local() {
         // A 300000² background used to materialize ~360 GB of tiles (#705).
diff --git a/crates/ui-egui/src/transform_tool.rs b/crates/ui-egui/src/transform_tool.rs
index 4af072005..786369216 100644
--- a/crates/ui-egui/src/transform_tool.rs
+++ b/crates/ui-egui/src/transform_tool.rs
@@ -173,7 +173,7 @@ pub fn begin(app: &mut PhotocraftApp, ctx: &egui::Context) -> Result<(), String>
     let mut lifted = None;
     if let Some(sel) = doc.selection.clone().filter(|_| !layer.is_group() && layer.surface().is_some()) {
         if let Some(surf) = pd.layer_mut(id).and_then(|l| l.surface_mut()) {
-            let (l, rest) = photocraft_engine::transform_cmds::split_selected(surf, &sel);
+            let (l, rest) = photocraft_engine::transform_cmds::split_selected(surf, &sel).map_err(|e| e.to_string())?;
             *surf = rest;
             lifted = Some(l);
         }
@@ -308,7 +308,7 @@ fn begin_lone(
             &whole
         }
     };
-    let (lifted, rest) = tc::split_gray_selected(&surf, sel).ok_or("this channel can't be transformed")?;
+    let (lifted, rest) = tc::split_gray_selected(&surf, sel).map_err(|e| e.to_string())?.ok_or("this channel can't be transformed")?;
     crate::type_tool::commit(app);
     let layer = app.session.active().and_then(|st| st.active_layer).map_or(0, |l| l.0);
     let mut pd = (*doc).clone();
@@ -3070,7 +3070,7 @@ mod tests {
         let st = app.session.active().unwrap();
         let sel = st.doc.selection.clone().unwrap();
         let id = st.active_layer.unwrap();
-        let (lifted, _) = photocraft_engine::transform_cmds::split_selected(st.doc.layer(id).unwrap().surface().unwrap(), &sel);
+        let (lifted, _) = photocraft_engine::transform_cmds::split_selected(st.doc.layer(id).unwrap().surface().unwrap(), &sel).unwrap();
         let b = photocraft_geom::Rect::new(8, 8, 20, 24);
         let (img, _) = preview_image(&st.doc, id, Some(&lifted), b, 4096);
         assert_eq!(texel_alpha(&img, 2, 4), 0, "masked");
diff --git a/docs/scorecard.md b/docs/scorecard.md
index 31c1d20c3..4861aa629 100644
--- a/docs/scorecard.md
+++ b/docs/scorecard.md
@@ -12,7 +12,7 @@ Generated by `cargo xtask scorecard` from `perf/budgets.toml`, `perf/baseline.js
 | [Workspace and UI](#workspace-and-ui) | 5 | 7 | 11 | settings that do nothing: 46 of 149 (target 0) |
 | [Type](#type) | 0 | 3 | 6 |  |
 | [Automation](#automation) | 3 | 2 | 6 | 627 of 627 menu items live (100.0%) |
-| [Reliability](#reliability) | 5 | 0 | 2 | never-crash lints on 28 of 28 crates; panic_hunt present |
+| [Reliability](#reliability) | 5 | 2 | 0 | never-crash lints on 28 of 28 crates; panic_hunt present |
 | [Distribution](#distribution) | 4 | 4 | 3 |  |
 | [Open bugs](#open-bugs) | 22 | 2 | 8 |  |
 
@@ -246,9 +246,9 @@ Never-crash attribute on 28 of 28 crate roots.
 | REL-2 | Every workspace crate carries the never-crash deny(clippy::unwrap_used, ...) attribute | done |  | Counted automatically above (crate roots under crates/ and apps/); testkit gained it in #221 |
 | REL-3 | The app catches escaped panics around command dispatch and import/export | done |  | a_panic_in_a_command_... runs the test-only `test.panic` spec through Session::execute and asserts Err plus an unchanged document (engine jobs_tests.rs); the worker guard is covered by a_panic_in_the_worker_...; crash_guard.rs guard_turns_a_panic_into_an_error covers import/export (apps/photocraft) |
 | REL-4 | Atomic save (temp, fsync, rename) for every document write | done | [#203](https://github.com/storytold/photocraft/issues/203) | photocraft_format::atomic_write (format/src/atomic.rs, #230): same-dir temp, sync_all, rename with Windows PermissionDenied retry, Unix dir fsync; every document write site routes through it and format/src/atomic/tests.rs failure-injects write, rename and read-only-dir errors |
-| REL-212-1 | Fallible allocation for paste/erase/fill/transform/save/import, clear out-of-memory error | missing | [#212](https://github.com/storytold/photocraft/issues/212) | try_reserve only in io/flat.rs:221; codec max_alloc limits cover decode only |
+| REL-212-1 | Fallible allocation for paste/erase/fill/transform/save/import, clear out-of-memory error | partial | [#212](https://github.com/storytold/photocraft/issues/212) | Raster region/tile buffers, paste/erase/fill/transform and warp output use fallible reservations; save/import boundaries preserve existing state, but encoder/decoder internals still need a broader fallible-allocation audit |
 | REL-212-2 | Export switches to PSB when the estimated file size exceeds 2 GB | done | [#212](https://github.com/storytold/photocraft/issues/212) | PSD export uses checked size estimates for raster, masks, channels, and retained metadata |
-| REL-212-3 | Tests: an allocation-limit injection makes each command Err with the document unchanged | missing | [#212](https://github.com/storytold/photocraft/issues/212) | Only codec/raw max_alloc tests (codecs/tests/limits.rs:48) |
+| REL-212-3 | Tests: an allocation-limit injection makes each command Err with the document unchanged | partial | [#212](https://github.com/storytold/photocraft/issues/212) | Engine failpoint tests cover paste, erase, fill, transform, import and save transaction boundaries; codec-level allocator failure coverage remains open |
 
 ## Distribution
 
diff --git a/scorecard/reliability.toml b/scorecard/reliability.toml
index a777e6237..081af4461 100644
--- a/scorecard/reliability.toml
+++ b/scorecard/reliability.toml
@@ -33,9 +33,9 @@ note = "photocraft_format::atomic_write (format/src/atomic.rs, #230): same-dir t
 [[item]]
 id = "REL-212-1"
 target = "Fallible allocation for paste/erase/fill/transform/save/import, clear out-of-memory error"
-status = "missing"
+status = "partial"
 issue = 212
-note = "try_reserve only in io/flat.rs:221; codec max_alloc limits cover decode only"
+note = "Raster region/tile buffers, paste/erase/fill/transform and warp output use fallible reservations; save/import boundaries preserve existing state, but encoder/decoder internals still need a broader fallible-allocation audit"
 
 [[item]]
 id = "REL-212-2"
@@ -47,6 +47,6 @@ note = "PSD export uses checked size estimates for raster, masks, channels, and
 [[item]]
 id = "REL-212-3"
 target = "Tests: an allocation-limit injection makes each command Err with the document unchanged"
-status = "missing"
+status = "partial"
 issue = 212
-note = "Only codec/raw max_alloc tests (codecs/tests/limits.rs:48)"
+note = "Engine failpoint tests cover paste, erase, fill, transform, import and save transaction boundaries; codec-level allocator failure coverage remains open"